Afro-Caribbean music is a broad term for music styles originating in the

Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...

from the

African diaspora The African diaspora is the worldwide collection of communities descended from native Africans or people from Africa, predominantly in the Americas. The term most commonly refers to the descendants of the West and Central Africans who were e ...

. These types of music usually have

West African West Africa or Western Africa is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Ma ...

/Central African influence because of the presence and history of

African people The population of Africa has grown rapidly over the past century and consequently shows a large youth bulge, further reinforced by a low life expectancy of below 50 years in some African countries. Total population as of 2020 is estimated at ...

and their descendants living in the Caribbean, as a result of the

trans-Atlantic slave trade The Atlantic slave trade, transatlantic slave trade, or Euro-American slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people, mainly to the Americas. The slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route and i ...

. These distinctive musical art forms came about from the cultural mingling of African, Indigenous, and European inhabitants. Characteristically, Afro-Caribbean music incorporates components, instruments and influences from a variety of African cultures, as well as Indigenous and European cultures. Afro-Caribbean music has been influenced by historical and stylistic influences. Historically, afro-Caribbean music was influenced by the transatlantic slave trade and later, by the resistance and emancipation of slaves. Stylistically, afro-Caribbean music has been influenced by various African, European and Indigenous Latin American influences. African influences are reflected by many of the

Rhythm Rhythm (from Greek , ''rhythmos'', "any regular recurring motion, symmetry") generally means a " movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions". This general meaning of regular recu ...

s, vocal characteristics and instruments that are used in afro-Caribbean music. Afro-Caribbean music shares many commonalities with traditional European style music, using many European instruments, harmonies and melodies in music of the genre. Indigenous Latin American influence can be seen through the use of percussive instruments and certain vocal techniques. Afro-Caribbean music has many common musical characteristics, including the use of

Polyrhythm Polyrhythm is the simultaneous use of two or more rhythms that are not readily perceived as deriving from one another, or as simple manifestations of the same meter. The rhythmic layers may be the basis of an entire piece of music (cross-rhyth ...

call-and-response Call and response is a form of interaction between a speaker and an audience in which the speaker's statements ("calls") are punctuated by responses from the listeners. This form is also used in music, where it falls under the general category of ...

invocations and a variety of instruments. Instruments commonly used in afro-Caribbean music include: drums, Percussion instruments and Guitars. Although the roots of afro-Caribbean music go back to the 15th century, the official local industry only began in the 1920s. Following this, afro-Caribbean music gained global popularity throughout the 20th century. As afro-Caribbean music gained popularity, many sub-genres began to emerge. These sub-genres include:

son cubano Son cubano is a genre of music and dance that originated in the highlands of eastern Cuba during the late 19th century. It is a syncretic genre that blends elements of Spanish and African origin. Among its fundamental Hispanic components are th ...

salsa Salsa most often refers to: * Salsa (Mexican cuisine), a variety of sauces used as condiments * Salsa music, a popular style of Latin American music * Salsa (dance), a Latin dance associated with Salsa music Salsa or SALSA may also refer to: ...

, calypso, soca,

mento Mento is a style of Music of Jamaica, Jamaican folk music that predates and has greatly influenced ska and reggae music. It is a fusion of African rhythmic elements and European elements, which reached peak popularity in the 1940s and 1950s. ...

ska Ska (; ) is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. It combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues. Ska is characterized by a walki ...

reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...

and merengue.

Development of the industry

Local Caribbean

Afro-Caribbean music began in the

as a result of the

transatlantic slave trade The Atlantic slave trade, transatlantic slave trade, or Euro-American slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people, mainly to the Americas. The slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route and i ...

and the creation of a neo-African culture among slaves. Afro-Caribbean music dates back as far as the 15th century, when the slave trade began. Although afro-Caribbean music existed for centuries, local recording and distribution officially began in the 1920s. Some of the earlier afro-Caribbean sub-genres to emerge included calypso, merengue,

son A son is a male offspring; a boy or a man in relation to his parents. The female counterpart is a daughter. From a biological perspective, a son constitutes a first degree relative. Social issues In pre-industrial societies and some current c ...

and

. Due to multiple problems with production and distribution, music from the region struggled initially to gain global popularity.

Global popularity

Afro-Caribbean music rose to popularity during the 20th century, exerting influence over many subsequent genres including

jazz Jazz is a music genre that originated in the African-American communities of New Orleans, Louisiana in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with its roots in blues and ragtime. Since the 1920s Jazz Age, it has been recognized as a major ...

and hip-hop. Many of these sub-genres have been validated in recent years due to a newfound appreciation of afro-Caribbean culture and tradition. In the United States, the genre has gained popularity due to the mass media infrastructure, large immigrant population and receptive non-Caribbean audiences. Due to these factors, New York City, although not in the

, is considered another centre of afro-Caribbean music. Sub-genres that gained popularity in the United States include the

rumba The term rumba may refer to a variety of unrelated music styles. Originally, "rumba" was used as a synonym for "party" in northern Cuba, and by the late 19th century it was used to denote the complex of secular music styles known as Cuban rumba. ...

and

. These genres were particularly popular among youth during the 1970s in countries such as the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 states, a federal district, five major unincorporated territorie ...

and the United Kingdom.

Influences of afro-Caribbean music

Historical influences

Role of the transatlantic slave trade

Atlantic_Ocean_slave_location_map_by_source_and_destination

The origin of afro-Caribbean music traces back to the 15th century and the arrival of African people in the

via the

. During the slave era, rivalling African villages attained captives who were sold into the slave trade. The collaboration of African states with European slave traders stimulated the slave trade, eliminating the need for kidnapping or effort by the European slavers. There were many different African cultures and traditions present among the Caribbean slave population. Music, tradition and religion were important to African people. As a result, neo-African cultures began to form among slaves from different parts of Africa, combining elements from a variety of African cultures. The creation of a neo-African cultures among slaves allowed for the creation of new communities and the development of slave resistance. Music was an important factor in the recreation of community among slaves, leading to the creation of afro-Caribbean music.

Role of emancipation

The

Haitian Revolution The Haitian Revolution (french: révolution haïtienne ; ht, revolisyon ayisyen) was a successful insurrection by slave revolt, self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolt ...

saw the end of slavery in

Haiti Haiti (; ht, Ayiti ; French: ), officially the Republic of Haiti (); ) and formerly known as Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and ...

at the end of the 18th century. This effectively saw Haiti as the first nation in the world to abolish slavery. Following the Haitian revolution, Britain concluded the importation of slaves in 1807 and began the process of abolition in 1823. The abolition of slavery in Britain was said to be complete in 1838. Although the slave trade was abolished in Britain in the early 19th century, the slave trade continued via the

Iberian Peninsula The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in southwestern Europe, defi ...

until as late as 1873. Due to this, approximately 135 000 slaves continued to be traded annually between 1800 and 1850. The abolition of slavery restricted afro-Caribbean music in one way as it led to a decreased number of slaves arriving from Africa and a weakened link between African people living in the Caribbean and their homeland. At the same time the abolition of slavery opened the door for previously enslaved Africans to participate more freely in music again, leading to further development of afro-Caribbean music.

Stylistic influences

Afro-Caribbean music is characterised by the combined influence of African, European and indigenous Caribbean cultures.

African music

Many rhythms, song styles and vocal characteristics used in afro-Caribbean music are reflective of traditional African music. Examples of African vocal characteristics include

invocations and textually repetitious, simple lyrics. Afro-Caribbean music places a strong emphasis on

rhythm Rhythm (from Greek , ''rhythmos'', "any regular recurring motion, symmetry") generally means a " movement marked by the regulated succession of strong and weak elements, or of opposite or different conditions". This general meaning of regular recu ...

, or a series of repeated pulses, this is also reflective of the influence of African music. Dominant African influences include those from the

Bantu Bantu may refer to: *Bantu languages, constitute the largest sub-branch of the Niger–Congo languages *Bantu peoples, over 400 peoples of Africa speaking a Bantu language * Bantu knots, a type of African hairstyle *Black Association for National ...

Kongo Congo or The Congo may refer to either of two countries that border the Congo River in central Africa: * Democratic Republic of the Congo, the larger country to the southeast, capital Kinshasa, formerly known as Zaire, sometimes referred to a ...

, Fon and

Yoruba The Yoruba people (, , ) are a West African ethnic group that mainly inhabit parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Togo. The areas of these countries primarily inhabited by Yoruba are often collectively referred to as Yorubaland. The Yoruba constitute ...

peoples. This is largely reflective of the fact that many slaves were from Western or Central Africa due to their proximity to the

Atlantic The Atlantic Ocean is the second-largest of the world's five oceans, with an area of about . It covers approximately 20% of Earth's surface and about 29% of its water surface area. It is known to separate the " Old World" of Africa, Europe an ...

seaboard.

European music

European_and_Islamic_musicians_in_13th_century_playing_stringed_instruments

The European influence seen in afro-Caribbean music stems from music that was popular in the colonial era such as classical,

folk Folk or Folks may refer to: Sociology *Nation *People * Folklore ** Folk art ** Folk dance ** Folk hero ** Folk music *** Folk metal *** Folk punk *** Folk rock ** Folk religion * Folk taxonomy Arts, entertainment, and media * Folk Plus or Fo ...

and dance music. Popular dance music at the time included the

contradance Contra dance (also contradance, contra-dance and other variant spellings) is a form of folk dancing made up of long lines of couples. It has mixed origins from English country dance, Scottish country dance, and French dance styles in the 17th ...

and

quadrille The quadrille is a dance that was fashionable in late 18th- and 19th-century Europe and its colonies. The quadrille consists of a chain of four to six '' contredanses''. Latterly the quadrille was frequently danced to a medley of opera melodie ...

. Elements of the contradance have been incorporated into afro-Caribbean sub-genres such as the Merengue. Due to the large numbers of Spanish settlers compared to English settlers in Caribbean colonies, the European influence on afro-Caribbean music is more strongly Spanish. Examples of European influence in afro-Caribbean music include the presence of tonal harmonies, melodies and instruments of European origin.BBC. (n.d. a). ''Caribbean bitesize''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 The lyrics of afro-Caribbean music are most commonly in European languages such as Spanish, English or French. The presence of European instruments and elements in afro-Caribbean music is reflective of the European music that slaves were forced to play for their masters. Over time, African elements, such as percussion and

invocations, were combined with traditional European elements. This led to the creation of a new hybrid genre, afro-Caribbean music.

Indigenous Caribbean and American music

Afro-Caribbean music was influenced by the ceremonial-style, religious music of the native American people (including indigenous Caribbean people). Traditional elements such as call-and-response style singing and the use of percussive instruments (such as Güiros and

Maraca A maraca (), sometimes called shaker or chac-chac, is a rattle which appears in many genres of Caribbean and Latin music. It is shaken by a handle and usually played as part of a pair. Maracas (from Guaraní ), also known as tamaracas, were r ...

s) are reflected in afro-Caribbean music.

Musical characteristics

Components

Polyrhythms

The combination of multiple series of pulses is referred to as a polyrhythm. These rhythms are often created using drums such as the batá. This rhythm is used as a base, to which vocals and other instruments can be added to. The Polyrhythm pattern is common in music derived from Western and Central Africa. In afro-Caribbean music, the polyrhythm is mainly seen in the music derived from Cuba and Haiti. CallAndResponseInstrumental

Call-and-response invocations

Call-and-response invocations refer to a vocal technique where one phrase is sung by a member of the group and then it is answered by another member, who sings a complimentary phrase. This technique was brought to the Caribbean by slaves that came from Western and Central Africa. Call-and-response invocations are used throughout the afro-Caribbean music genre, and particularly in the music derived from Cuba.

Cinquillo rhythm

The

cinquillo A cinquillo is a typical Cuban/Caribbean rhythmic cell, used in the Cuban contradanza (the " habanera") and the danzón.Mauleón, Rebeca (1993: 51). ''Salsa Guidebook: For Piano and Ensemble''. Petaluma, CA: Sher Music. The figure is also a comm ...

is a rhythmic pattern that is used in afro-Caribbean music. This rhythmic cell originated in sub-Saharan Africa and was brought to the Caribbean by enslaved people of Bantu origin. Once arriving in the Caribbean, the cinquillo beat was transformed and refined, in countries such as Haiti and Cuba, to fit the evolving afro-Caribbean music genre. The cinquillo is created by use of percussion instruments such as the claves and güiro.

Instruments

Drums

Drums are an important element of afro-Caribbean music, culture and religion. Drums are used in many

Ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized, b ...

s and

ceremonies A ceremony (, ) is a unified ritualistic event with a purpose, usually consisting of a number of artistic components, performed on a special occasion. The word may be of Etruscan origin, via the Latin '' caerimonia''. Church and civil (secular) ...

such as the Haitian vodun ceremony. During the slave era, this strong link of drums with culture, religion and solidarity was recognised by white oppressors and drumming was subsequently banned in an attempt to curtail potential rebellions.

Conga The conga, also known as tumbadora, is a tall, narrow, single-headed drum from Cuba. Congas are staved like barrels and classified into three types: quinto (lead drum, highest), tres dos or tres golpes (middle), and tumba or salidor (lowest). ...

bongos Bongos ( es, bongó) are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed hand drums of different sizes. They are struck with both hands, most commonly in an eight-stroke pattern called ''martillo'' (hammer). The ...

bombo Bombo may refer to: Music * ''Bombo'' (musical), a 1921 Broadway production starring Al Jolson * "Bombo" (song), by Norwegian singer Adelén *Bombo criollo or just bombo, a family of Latin American drums *Bombo legüero, an Argentine drum *An 18th ...

and batá drums are most commonly heard in afro-Caribbean music, however, many other variations of drums are also used including the tumba francesa, palo, yuka and makuta drums. The influence of the drums in afro-Caribbean music is mixed with many popular drum varieties originating in Latin America, Europe and Africa. In most circumstances the roots of these drum types lead back to African origin. A prominent drumming influence from Africa is the use of the hands to create music over a variety of

Timbre In music, timbre ( ), also known as tone color or tone quality (from psychoacoustics), is the perceived sound quality of a musical note, sound or musical tone, tone. Timbre distinguishes different types of sound production, such as choir voice ...

s, unlike in European music, where sticks are favoured to strike the drums.

= Batá

= Main article:

batá drum The Batá drum is a double-headed drum shaped like an hourglass with one end larger than the other. The percussion instrument is still used for its original purpose as it is one of the most important drums in the yourba land and used for trad ...

Batá drums have an hourglass shape with a

drumhead A drumhead or drum skin is a membrane stretched over one or both of the open ends of a drum. The drumhead is struck with sticks, mallets, or hands, so that it vibrates and the sound resonates through the drum. Additionally outside of percus ...

at either end. Traditionally, a batá drum would consist of a wooden base with drumheads made of skin, pulled taut, at each end.Batá drums are available in a variety of sizes, each with a different purpose in creating overall

and sound. Sound is produced by the individual striking the drumheads on each side with their hands. This particular variety of drum originated in

Nigeria Nigeria ( ), , ig, Naìjíríyà, yo, Nàìjíríà, pcm, Naijá , ff, Naajeeriya, kcg, Naijeriya officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf o ...

among the

people and was once an instrument used for religious purposes to worship the African Orishas. The batá drums are now widely used in

Latin American Latin Americans ( es, Latinoamericanos; pt, Latino-americanos; ) are the citizens of Latin American countries (or people with cultural, ancestral or national origins in Latin America). Latin American countries and their diasporas are multi-eth ...

and afro-Caribbean music.

= Bombo

= Main article: bombo drum The bombo drum (also known as the

bombo criollo The bombo criollo, or simply bombo, is a family of Latin American drums derived from the European bass drum (also called in Spanish ''bombo'') and native Latin American drum traditions. These drums are of smaller dimensions than the orchestral bas ...

) is another drum commonly seen in afro-Caribbean music. This drum is of South American origin and is commonly used in indigenous music of the region. The bombo drum is composed of a large, hollow wooden drum with an animal skin for the

. Sound is produced on the bombo drum by striking the middle of the drumhead with the hand and by striking the rim of the drumhead with a small stick or other tool.

= Congas and bongos

Main articles:

drum,

bongo drum Bongos ( es, bongó) are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed hand drums of different sizes. They are struck with both hands, most commonly in an eight-stroke pattern called ''martillo'' (hammer). The ...

s are tall, barrel-like, single-headed drums, usually played using the hands.BBC. (n.d. b). ''Caribbean''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 Bongos are similar to congas in shape, however, they are smaller and commonly played in pairs.

Bongos Bongos ( es, bongó) are an Afro-Cuban percussion instrument consisting of a pair of small open bottomed hand drums of different sizes. They are struck with both hands, most commonly in an eight-stroke pattern called ''martillo'' (hammer). The ...

are tapered, single headed drums that are usually composed of a wooden base with an animal hide drumhead. There are two variations of bongo drums that produce different pitches. The macho bongo produces a high pitch, popping like sound and is referred to as the male bongo. In contrast, the hembra bongo is considered the female of the pair and produces low, deep sounds. The congas and bongos originated in Cuba among African slaves and are key instruments of the afro-Caribbean music genre. These drums are reminiscent of other African style drums that inspired them such as the batá, yuka and makuta drums.

Hand-held percussion

= Claves

= Main article:

claves Claves (; ) are a percussion instrument consisting of a pair of short, wooden sticks about 20–25 centimeters (8–10 inches) long and about 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) in diameter. Although traditionally made of wood (typically rosewood, ebony o ...

Claves (also called palitos) consist of two short, round pieces of wood which are struck together to produce sound. Modern day claves originated in Cuba and are reminiscent of early percussive instruments present in ancient, indigenous civilisations all around the world, including Africa and South America. Claves are used to maintain a rhythm known as the ‘''clave’'', or the key.

= Maracas

Main article:

s Maracas (also called boîte à de clous, caraxa, mussamba) are handheld rattles consisting of a hollow vessel (such as a

Gourd Gourds include the fruits of some flowering plant species in the family Cucurbitaceae, particularly ''Cucurbita'' and ''Lagenaria''. The term refers to a number of species and subspecies, many with hard shells, and some without. One of the earli ...

s or Turtle shells), filled with small items (such as

Seed A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering, along with a food reserve. The formation of the seed is a part of the process of reproduction in seed plants, the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiospe ...

s, nuts or shells), attached to a handle.MasterClass. (2020c). ''Guide to maracas: history and use of maracas in music''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from MasterClass: https://www.masterclass.com/articles/guide-to-maracas#what-are-maracas The Maraca is shaken to produce a rattle sound which is used to maintain

tempo In musical terminology, tempo (Italian, 'time'; plural ''tempos'', or ''tempi'' from the Italian plural) is the speed or pace of a given piece. In classical music, tempo is typically indicated with an instruction at the start of a piece (often ...

and

. Different versions of maracas originated in South America and Africa. They were often played to accompany dancers and other musicians. Variations of maracas include versions that are worn on the wrist and versions in different shapes of sticks, hourglasses, cones or crosses. Maracas are used in many afro-Caribbean music genres including calypso,

and

Son cubano Son cubano is a genre of music and dance that originated in the highlands of eastern Cuba during the late 19th century. It is a syncretic genre that blends elements of Spanish and African origin. Among its fundamental Hispanic components are th ...

= Cabasa

Main article:

cabasa The cabasa, similar to the shekere, is a percussion instrument that is constructed with loops of steel ball chain wrapped around a wooden cylinder. The cylinder is fixed to a long, wooden or plastic handle. The metal cabasa was created by Mart ...

The cabasa (also called afuche, afoxê, cabaça, cabazam, cockolo) consists of steel balls that are looped around a hollow base. The balls are then struck by hand to produce a rattling sound. This percussion instrument has African Origin but is also found in Latin American musical history.

= Güiro

Main article: güiro The güiro (also called lero-lero, rape de bois, querēquezé, reposing tiger, reco-reco) is a form of scraper instrument, consisting of the body of the instrument – a cylindrical, hollowed out piece of wood with several notches on one side – and a scraping implement such as a stick or piece of wood. Rubbing of the scraping implement down the notches produces a ‘reco-reco’ sound. The ‘reco-reco’ sound produced gives this instrument one of its many other names, the ‘reco-reco’. The güiro is used, in conjunction with other percussive instruments, to maintain

in afro-Caribbean music.

= Agogô

Main article:

agogô An agogô ( Yoruba: ''agogo'', meaning bell) is a single or a multiple bell now used throughout the world but with origins in traditional Yoruba and Edo music and also in the samba '' baterias'' (percussion ensembles). The agogô may be the old ...

The

Agogô An agogô ( Yoruba: ''agogo'', meaning bell) is a single or a multiple bell now used throughout the world but with origins in traditional Yoruba and Edo music and also in the samba '' baterias'' (percussion ensembles). The agogô may be the old ...

(also called ga, gankogui, gongue) is a variety of

bell A bell is a directly struck idiophone percussion instrument. Most bells have the shape of a hollow cup that when struck vibrates in a single strong strike tone, with its sides forming an efficient resonator. The strike may be made by an inter ...

used in afro-Caribbean music, they can include single, double or multi-headed bells that are attached to a metal handle. The bells consist of a hollow, conical shaped item that jingles when shaken or struck. Agogô bells are of Western African origin but are now also used in Brazilian and Latin American music.

Guitars

The use of Guitars in afro-Caribbean music is reminiscent of European influence. The guitars most commonly used in afro-Caribbean music include the guitarrone, the

tres Tres may refer to: * Tres (instrument), a Cuban musical instrument * Tres, Trentino, municipality in Italy * "Tres" (song) by Juanes * "Tres", a song by Líbido from their album ''Hembra'' * TrES, the ''Trans-Atlantic Exoplanet Survey'' * Templi ...

and the

cuatro Cuatro is Spanish (and other Romance languages) for the number four. Cuatro may also refer to: * Cuatro (instrument), name for two distinct Latin American instruments, one from Puerto Rico (see Cuatro) and the other from Venezuela (see Cuatro) ...

.BBC. (n.d. a). ''Caribbean bitesize''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 These regional varieties of guitars are based on classic European guitars such as the Spanish

vihuela The vihuela () is a 15th-century fretted plucked Spanish string instrument, shaped like a guitar (figure-of-eight form offering strength and portability) but tuned like a lute. It was used in 15th- and 16th-century Spain as the equivalent of t ...

= Guitarrón

= Main article:

guitarrón Guitarrón or guitarron is a common name for a number of stringed instruments found in Latin America and may refer to: * Guitarrón argentino, a six-stringed musical instrument from Argentina * Guitarrón chileno, a 25-stringed, plucked instrument ...

The ''

'' (also known as guitarrone) is a large form of acoustic guitar. It is a bass stringed instrument consisting of a wooden body, sound board and six plastic or metal strings.

= Tres

= Main article:

The ''

'' is a small guitar consisting of a wooden body with three sets of double strings. The ''tres'' originated in

Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...

and is the national string instrument. This variety of guitar was derived from similar instruments of both Spanish and indigenous African origin. It is a component of many afro-Caribbean music genres including changüí,

Sucu Sucu "Sucu Sucu" is a dance and a song written by Tarateño Rojas from Bolivia, who recorded his version in 1959. It became very popular in the 1960s and many singers and bands from all over the world made their own version of the song often in their own ...

and

guaracha The guaracha () is a genre of music that originated in Cuba, of rapid tempo and comic or picaresque lyrics. The word had been used in this sense at least since the late 18th and early 19th century. Guarachas were played and sung in musical thea ...

= Cuatro

= The ''

'' is a small, Spanish-derived guitar consisting of a wooden body and four strings. The cuatro acts as an accent to the bass notes of the guitar, providing syncopation. Variants of the ''cuatro'', such as the ''

Venezuelan cuatro The cuatro of Venezuela has four single nylon strings, tuned (ad'f#'b). It is similar in shape and tuning to the ukulele, but their character and playing technique are vastly different. It is tuned in a similar fashion to the traditional D tuni ...

'' and the ''Puerto Rican'' ''cuatro'', are common throughout the Caribbean. The Venezuelan and Puerto Rican ''Cuatros'' are each national instruments of their respective countries. The ''cuatro'' guitar is a component of afro-Caribbean subgenres such as '' calypso.''

Afro-Caribbean sub-genres

Son Cubano

Main article:

Son Cubano originated in

among afro-Caribbean people of

descent.MasterClass. (2020a, November). ''Guide to salsa music: a brief history of the salsa genre''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from MasterClass: https://www.masterclass.com/articles/guide-to-salsa-music Son Cubano incorporates European and African instruments and musical components.MasterClass. (2020b, November). ''Guide to son cubano: a brief history of the son cubano genre''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from MasterClass: https://www.masterclass.com/articles/guide-to-son-cubano African influence is seen in the use of percussive instruments such as bongos, congas and claves. While Spanish influence is evident through the use of guitars and harmonic vocals.

Salsa

Main article:

Salsa is a sub-genre of afro-Caribbean music that has both African and Spanish influences.BBC. (n.d. a). ''Caribbean bitesize''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 This sub-genre is a modernised version of another afro-Cuban music genre, ''

''.MasterClass. (2020a, November). ''Guide to salsa music: a brief history of the salsa genre''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from MasterClass: https://www.masterclass.com/articles/guide-to-salsa-music In addition to Son Cubano, salsa is influenced by the

danzón Danzón is the official musical genre and dance of Cuba.Urfé, Odilio 1965. ''El danzón''. La Habana. It is also an active musical form in Mexico and Puerto Rico. Written in time, the danzón is a slow, formal partner dance, requiring se ...

cha-cha-cha Cha cha cha may refer to: * ''Cha-cha-chá'' (music), a style of Cuban dance music * Cha-cha-cha (dance), a Latin American dance accompanying the music Film and television * ''Cha Cha Cha'' (film), a 2013 Italian crime film * ''Cha Cha Cha'' ...

mambo Mambo most often refers to: * Mambo (music), a Cuban musical form *Mambo (dance), a dance corresponding to mambo music Mambo may also refer to: Music * Mambo section, a section in arrangements of some types of Afro-Caribbean music, particul ...

and a variety of other afro-Caribbean genres. Although salsa is deeply rooted in afro-Caribbean music genres, salsa originated and developed in New York City in the 1960s. African elements in salsa music include

invocations and the use of African derived instruments such as

and

conga The conga, also known as tumbadora, is a tall, narrow, single-headed drum from Cuba. Congas are staved like barrels and classified into three types: quinto (lead drum, highest), tres dos or tres golpes (middle), and tumba or salidor (lowest). ...

drums. The Spanish influence of salsa music is seen through the Spanish-language song lyrics and use of European instruments such as the

guitar. Salsa includes the use of clave rhythms,

invocations and rhythmic syncopation. Key salsa instruments include

s, Güiros and the piano.

Calypso

Main article: calypso Calypso is a sub-genre of afro-Caribbean music that originated in

Trinidad and Tobago Trinidad and Tobago (, ), officially the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, is the southernmost island country in the Caribbean. Consisting of the main islands Trinidad and Tobago, and numerous much smaller islands, it is situated south of ...

.BBC. (n.d. a). ''Caribbean bitesize''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 Calypso music is played in 4/4 time and utilises syncopated rhythms. The use of drums, percussion and

invocations are examples of the African influence in calypso music. The simple

harmonies In music, harmony is the process by which individual sounds are joined together or composed into whole units or compositions. Often, the term harmony refers to simultaneously occurring frequencies, pitches ( tones, notes), or chords. However ...

, acoustic and Bass guitars present in Calypso music are due to European influence. KrokussSaba

Soca

Main article: soca Soca originated in the 1970s in Trinidad and Tobago . Soca was influenced by other afro-Caribbean music styles such as

, calypso and

. African elements present in soca include the use of

percussive A percussion instrument is a musical instrument that is sounded by being struck or scraped by a beater including attached or enclosed beaters or rattles struck, scraped or rubbed by hand or struck against another similar instrument. Exc ...

instruments and the tresillo beat, which is reminiscent of music from Western Africa. This genre was also influenced by European and American music styles such as hip-hop and

rhythm and blues Rhythm and blues, frequently abbreviated as R&B or R'n'B, is a genre of popular music that originated in African-American communities in the 1940s. The term was originally used by record companies to describe recordings marketed predominantly ...

. Instruments used in soca music include Guitars,

horns Horns or The Horns may refer to: * Plural of Horn (instrument), a group of musical instruments all with a horn-shaped bells * The Horns (Colorado), a summit on Cheyenne Mountain * ''Horns'' (novel), a dark fantasy novel written in 2010 by Joe Hill ...

and

instruments. Soca music incorporates the habanera rhythm which is of Congolese origin.

Mento

Main article:

Mento (also known as Jamaican calypso) is a type of afro-Caribbean folk music that originated in Jamaica. This genre was a precursor of other afro-Caribbean sub-genres such as ska and reggae.BBC. (n.d. a). ''Caribbean bitesize''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 Mento incorporates African rhythmic elements, such as the drums, with European elements, such as the guitar and the use of melodies. Like other Jamaican music genres, mento places emphasis on the after-beat.

Ska

Main article:

Ska is a fusion genre of

combined with

, that began in

Jamaica Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...

in the 1950s. Unlike American music, ska is defined by its emphasis on the after-beat instead of the downbeat. This means that emphasis is placed on the second and fourth beats of the 4/4

time signature The time signature (also known as meter signature, metre signature, or measure signature) is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats (pulses) are contained in each measure (bar), and which note value ...

. This emphasis on the after-beat is present in African rhythmic practices and mento music. Ska shows European influence through the use of guitars and horn instruments. This genre is a predecessor of another Jamaican sub-genre of afro-Caribbean music,

Reggae Reggae () is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular music of Jamaica and its diaspora. A 1968 single by Toots and the Maytals, " Do the Reggay" was the first popular song to use ...

Reggae

Main article:

Reggae is a variation of

that emerged in the 1960s in Jamaica.BBC. (n.d. a). ''Caribbean bitesize''. Retrieved May 11, 2021, from BBC – GCSE bitesize: https:/www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/ztp49j6/revision/1 The

lyrics Lyrics are words that make up a song, usually consisting of verses and choruses. The writer of lyrics is a lyricist. The words to an extended musical composition such as an opera are, however, usually known as a "libretto" and their writer, a ...

in reggae music are closely aligned with the Rastafarian religion and focus on themes of politics and

spirituality The meaning of ''spirituality'' has developed and expanded over time, and various meanings can be found alongside each other. Traditionally, spirituality referred to a religious process of re-formation which "aims to recover the original shape o ...

. Through these lyrics, reggae has made public the issues of the poverty and inequality present in Jamaica. Key Rastafarian philosophies contribute to the African influence of reggae music. These philosophies include

African nationalism African nationalism is an umbrella term which refers to a group of political ideologies in sub-Saharan Africa, which are based on the idea of national self-determination and the creation of nation states.

Merengue

Main article: merengue Merengue is an afro-Caribbean music subgenre that originated in the Dominican Republic. The Dominican merengue is a close variation of the Haitian mereng. Merengue incorporates many African elements such as the use of call and response invocations, drums and guiros. European elements that are included in merengue include use of the cuatro guitar, harmonic melodies and the accordion.

Haitian Mereng

Mereng originated in Haiti as a fusion genre of traditional African music mixed with European elements. The mereng is influenced by the African music genres of chica and calenda, and the European genre of contredanse.

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * *

References

{{DEFAULTSORT:Afro-Caribbean Music . Caribbean music

Development of the industry

Local Caribbean

Global popularity

Influences of afro-Caribbean music

Historical influences

Role of the transatlantic slave trade

Role of emancipation

Stylistic influences

African music

European music

Indigenous Caribbean and American music

Musical characteristics

Components

Polyrhythms

Call-and-response invocations

Cinquillo rhythm

Instruments

Drums

= Batá

= Bombo

= Congas and bongos

Hand-held percussion

= Claves

= Maracas

= Cabasa

= Güiro

= Agogô

Guitars

= Guitarrón

= Tres

= Cuatro

Afro-Caribbean sub-genres

Son Cubano

Salsa

Calypso

Soca

Mento

Ska

Reggae

Merengue

Haitian Mereng

See also

Bibliography

References